D. OFFSHORE HABITAT PROTECTION AND RESTORATION

SCOPE OF THE ISSUE

Adjacent to the coasts of the United States are a wide array of offshore, submerged aquatic habitats. The following review of these habitats is limited to hard and soft bottom areas within the photic zone, i.e., the area of light penetration that allows photosynthesis to occur. These areas are some of the most highly productive regions in the oceans, producing over 70 percent of the oceans biomass. In fact, the highest measured primary productivity in any ecosystem has been reported in the kelp beds of the northeast Pacific. Biological diversity is correspondingly high in these regions, in some cases approaching the level of diversity found in tropical rainforests.

The diversity of impacts to these habitats are as varied as the habitats themselves. Long term, polluted urban and agricultural runoff has altered the ecological community structure in several estuaries as evidenced by reduced numbers of species and individuals. Shifts in salinity regimes brought about by modified freshwater flowing into coastal marine waters have changed the ecological conditions required by some hard bottom organisms. Port and navigation activities have reduced the regional distribution and productivity of a number of soft and hard bottom communities.

Coastal America projects have addressed a number of these impacts to offshore habitats. Some projects have constructed reefs for oysters and other hard bottom species in areas where salinity, substrate, and temperature changes have excluded them from their original locations. Other projects have reintroduced seagrass beds where they have been lost to physical disturbance and/or other impacts. Still other projects attempt to limit human impacts to seagrass beds by using public education, marker buoys or limited access barriers. Finally, areas containing unique or diverse habitats are being considered for protection through the collaborative development of a Marine Resource Preserve.

SELECTED PROJECT SUMMARIES

For the purposes of this discussion and for ease of analysis our Offshore Restoration and Protection Projects have been divided into four categories: Creation of New Offshore Habitat; Restoration of Existing Submerged Habitat; Preservation of Offshore Habitat; and Restoration of Offshore Islands.

Galveston Bay Oyster Reef Creation, TX

Over two million pounds of eastern oysters are harvested from Galveston Bay each year. This harvest, however, has recently been in a state of flux. Changes in the water circulation patterns of Galveston Bay, resulting from development on land and in the bay itself, have resulted in shifting salinity patterns. These changed salinity patterns have, in turn, led to a decline in oyster production due to increased sedimentation over historical oyster reefs and a decreased amount of suitable reef material upon which the juvenile oysters, called spat, will attach. At the same time, the opportunity for new reefs has been created in other areas because of the shifting salinity patterns. These optimal salinity conditions for oyster growth, however, now exist in areas where the substrate is soft and not conducive for oyster spat settlement.

Houston Lighting & Power runs two plants, the Limestone Electric Station and W.A. Parish plant, which together produce 4,000 megawatts of electricity, supporting the large population and business/industrial complex of the Houston, Texas metropolitan region. These coal fired power plants produce 2.2 million tons of combustion by-product annually in the form of fly ash, over 50 percent of which is landfilled. Regionally, coal-fired power plants in Texas produce about 9 million tons of fly ash annually, which places an enormous burden upon landfills within the state.

In response to these two evolving problems; the loss of suitable substrate for oyster production and the increase in fly ash production, the idea to construct oyster reefs using pellets made of fly ash was developed. The pellets would provide a hard substrate encouraging oyster spat settlement and benefit the power industry by providing for the productive use of a waste product. Additionally, it was anticipated that estuarine fisheries populations and the commercial and sport fishing industry which rely upon these populations would also benefit. Several small demonstration reefs using fly ash pellets were tested in soft substrate areas of Galveston Bay. Encouraged by negative toxicity results and dense accumulations of oysters on the demonstration reefs, a five acre reef was constructed in the summer of 1993 and has shown significant oyster recruitment since its establishment. Preliminary monitoring results have demonstrated that on natural reefs, oysters reach commercial size in 18-24 months; however, on reefs constructed of fly ash pellets the oysters reach commercial size in 12 months. Additional monitoring and study will be required to determine the reason for the increased productivity. Nevertheless, depending on the continued realization of positive environmental results and the demand for fly ash pellet reefs in other bays and estuaries, the potential exists for fly ash generators to convert a costly waste disposal problem into a profit making venture with positive environmental consequences.

Numerous partners have participated in this venture: EPA, through the Galveston Bay National Estuary Program, provided planning funds; Houston Lighting & Power and the Port of Houston provided major funding contributions and project development activities; NMFS aided in the development of the proposal and conducted monitoring and testing activities along with Texas A&M University; and the COE and the FWS provided technical assistance and the necessary permit and project review.

Wilmington Offshore Fisheries Enhancement Structure, NC

The dredging of substantial quantities of rock from the Wilmington Harbor Ocean Bar Channel, also known as the Bald Head Shoal Channel, provides a unique opportunity to construct a fisheries enhancement structure or artificial reef. The deepening of this navigation channel will generate large amounts, well over 1,000,000 cubic yards of a mixture of fossiliferous limestone rock and finer grained natural materials, that will be used to construct the Wilmington Offshore Fisheries Enhancement Structure (WOFES). Physical factors which were considered in the design of the WOFES include; the type of material used, shape, orientation to currents, vertical relief, side slopes, and general size. The material to be dredged and to construct the WOFES is expected to enhance the attributes and features that would provide habitat and attract fish. The shape chosen for the WOFES is a three legged, inverted "W" which will provide a harboring effect, allowing fish to occupy an area which will be in the lee of prevailing currents. Vertical relief of the WOFES was designed to rise above the seabed as much as possible without interfering with the 25 foot navigation depths in these waters. The depth of waters in which the WOFES is to be constructed presently average 40-45 feet in depth. It is anticipated that the WOFES will have a beneficial effect on both recreational and commercial fishing, as its location, approximately 5 miles southeast of the channel entrance, is close enough to the Cape Fear River Inlet to provide ready access for vessels.

Partners for this project include the following: North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, providing technical support;, the North Carolina Divisions of Marine Fisheries and Coastal Management, providing public outreach and education activities; the North Carolina Sea Grant Program, providing additional public outreach and educational support; the NMFS, providing technical services; the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, providing technical support and additional public outreach and educational support; the EPA, providing technical support; and the COE, providing funding and technical support through its general navigation authority. Dredging and placement of rock began in October of 1994, but was discontinued in December because of winter weather conditions. The work resumed in May of 1995 and is expected to be completed in May of 1996.

Technical Lessons Learned:

1. Fly ash pellet reefs provide a hard substrate which encourages oyster spat settlement, that when combined with negative toxicity results from both laboratory and site monitoring and dense accumulations of oysters on test sites, has great potential for re-establishing oyster populations in areas where the historic reefs have been over harvested, mined and/or the physical conditions have changed to prevent their natural establishment.
2. Depending on the continued realization of positive environmental results and the demand for fly ash reefs in other bays and estuaries, the potential exists for Houston Lighting & Power and other fly ash generators to convert a costly waste disposal problem into a profit-making venture.
3. Examination of monitoring results have established that the use of low sulfur content coals (Class C) are better for pelletizing and reef creation as they contain lower amounts of metals, and thus pose little to no threat to the colonizing oysters or ultimately to consumers.
4. Preliminary monitoring results have demonstrated that on natural reefs, oysters reach commercial size in 18-24 months; however, on reefs constructed of fly ash pellets the oysters reach commercial size in 12 months. Additional monitoring and study will be required to determine the reason for the increased productivity.
5. There are potentially a large number of "alternative" materials from which to construct reefs. However, these materials should be inert and function in a biologically effective manner, i.e., provide essential life requisites such as habitat, cover, resting areas, food, rather than simply concentrating desirable species.

Procedural Lessons Learned:

1. The value of the partnership process cannot be overemphasized as it points to the benefits of state and national governments, the private sector, and the university community combining their respective talents and programs to develop and endorse an idea, give the idea an opportunity to be validated, and then apply the idea in a manner that benefits the environment and the regional economy. This principle was exemplified in the Galveston Bay, Texas Oyster Reef Construction Project.
2. When innovative and successful technologies are developed through Coastal America projects, opportunities may exist to promote their use on a nation wide basis. To accomplish this, it may be necessary to overcome technical and regulatory barriers to technology transfer.
3. Transferring innovative technologies across geographic regions can be complicated by the fact that many regulatory agencies, responsible for approving the use of new technologies, are organized on a regional basis. Often, one region's legal or technical determinations do not bind other regions. For example, with respect to permit decisions, each region may engage in what is essentially a de novo review of the same issue(s). This can require project proponents to start again at "square one" in terms of getting the necessary permits, testing, and approvals in a new sector of the country.
4. Seemingly disparate regulatory results across regions can be a legitimate response to different site specific conditions. The stability of fly ash pellets may vary depending on their chemical composition, the salinity of the water, and the water temperature. Their toxicological nature will depend on whether the fly ash pellets are derived from low sulfur western coals or high sulfur eastern coals. Project managers who understand that site specific conditions are a critical consideration in all permitting decisions are in the best position, when developing permit applications, to identify and address these issues.

Mobile Bay/Delta Wetlands Restoration, AL

This project consists of two parts: (1) the restoration and protection of oyster reef habitat; and, (2) the restoration of wetland habitat in Mobile Bay, Alabama. Mobile Bay has suffered a loss of approximately 50 percent of its oyster reefs in the last 100 years and its wetlands acreage have decreased by over 30 percent since 1950.

Initial Coastal America efforts were devoted to the restoration and maintenance of public oyster beds in and near south Mobile Bay. Over 2000 acres of public reefs were marked, using signs and buoys to delineate reef perimeters. The marking project was designed to help enforcement of existing state laws that prohibit trawling over these reefs. Additionally, this project was designed to prevent vessel groundings, either intentional or otherwise, that are also prohibited by state law. The oyster reef restoration techniques were analyzed through the placement of archeological coral in Dauphin Island Bay as test cultch material for collecting oyster spat. Two, quarter-acre plots were established and initial results were very favorable, with high spat settlement taking place accompanied by strong growth rates following attachment. Monitoring is continuing to determine the long term value of archeological cultch material; however, the costs of this material is higher than most alternative cultch materials.

The wetland restoration projects were carried out at the Dauphin Island Sea Laboratory (DISL), and at the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Marine Resources Division's (MRD) Claude Poteet Mariculture Center. The DISL project involved site preparation and planting of a Spartina alternaflora marsh as part of a major educational exhibit about wetlands and coastal values. Approximately two acres of marsh, in addition to coastal barrier upland habitat, was created in association with a boardwalk featuring handicapped access and an educational exhibit at the DISL. This complex has become an integral part of the DISL's educational program and is viewed by thousands of students and visitors each year. The MRD project involved the creation of approximately a quarter acre of estuarine marsh which is used to remove waterborne waste from a fish rearing pond drainage system before that water is released back into the Gulf Intercoastal Waterway.

For the oyster projects, work was cost shared ($20,000) and accomplished by the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Marine Resources Division (MRD). The EPA provided the federal share of the funding ($40,000) through its Gulf of Mexico Program. The COE provided assistance in permitting and technical design. The FWS provided technical assistance and administered the grant. The MRD/DISL wetland projects involved the provision of design, construction, and maintenance services for the wetland area, plus cost sharing by the state of Alabama. Additionally, the Army Reserves provided cleanup and removal services for contaminated sediments in the project area as part of a training exercise, and aided in the construction of weirs providing water to the salt marsh.

Seagrass Bed/Boating Damage Protection, FL

The shallow water environment of the Florida Keys is extremely productive and important to this aquatic ecosystem. Seagrass beds provide critical nursery grounds for many species of fish and crustaceans. They also capture sediment and stabilize the water bottom, improving water quality and clarity. Unfortunately, seagrass beds have been, and continue to be, highly impacted by motorized vessels. Propeller scarring of seagrasses has been extensive and to heal naturally takes from 8 to 10 years. It has been estimated that 5,000-10,000 acres of seagrass beds in the Florida Keys alone have been severely impacted from boat groundings and propeller scaring caused by boater neglect and the lack of education about the critical ecological role these submerged seagrasses play. Prop wash increases turbidity, destroys the seagrasses themselves, and destabilizes the bottom sediments causing further erosion of seagrasses. Shallow water boat groundings also disrupts this valuable benthic community in a similar fashion.

John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park in Key Largo, Florida, the first underwater marine park in the U.S., contains 81 square miles of submerged habitat including seagrass beds, mangroves, and coral reefs. Because of years of boating damage, park management decided to institute three protective measures: (1) the most severely damaged seagrass beds would be closed to motorized vessels altogether to allow their recovery; (2) additional channel markers and signage would be installed in critical areas, and; (3) a public education program on the value of these submerged seagrass beds would be initiated.

The park began this project by holding joint public hearings to obtain the support of the boating community. Key to this support was the endorsement of local fishing guides. Additionally, the EPA and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary participated in the initial planning, with the COE, U.S. Coast Guard and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection providing the necessary permits. The NMFS is providing technical advise and consultation on the project. The U.S. Naval Air Station at Key West and the Key Deer National Wildlife Refuge provided over 20 divers to assist with the placement of regulatory buoys, channel markers, and warning signage as part of a training exercise. Additionally, brochures have been developed to educate boaters of the biological communities impacted by improper navigation and boat handling. Aerial photography of areas delineated by the buoys before and after their placement is being preformed by the Florida Marine Research Institute. Recent evidence however, suggests that the buoys have not been as successful as had been originally anticipated as the buoys appear to be easily dislodged resulting in their relocation and/or loss and leading to increased maintenance costs.

West Galveston Bay Seagrass Restoration, TX

In the western portion of the Galveston Bay Estuary, seagrass acreage declined from 2200 acres in 1956 to zero in 1989. Most of these seagrass meadows, primarily Halodule wrightii, grew along the barrier island edges of western West Bay often supporting faunal densities much greater than those found in bare sand or mud habitats. The only remaining seagrass beds, about 89 acres still in existence, are found in Christmas Bay, a partially isolated embayment adjoining West Bay. Seagrass loss in this region has been attributed primarily to dredging channels through the beds to waterfront properties and disposal of the dredged material either on or near adjacent beds.

Successful restoration of seagrass beds will have multiple benefits, including increased habitat for species such as panaeid shrimp, blue crab, and spotted sea trout, as well as helping to stabilize shorelines and slow erosion. The water clarity in the West Bay has recently increased due to reduced waterfront dredging and the upland placement of navigation channel maintenance dredged material. Thus, given the area's history of supporting lush seagrass beds, restoration now appears to be possible. However, natural recolonization has been hindered by the lack of nearby propagules or seed sources, therefore, efforts are being made to restore approximately one hectare of viable seagrass in West Bay by using material from outside locations. The objectives are to determine survival and growth rates of transplanted seagrasses and to obtain evidence on increased faunal densities above those in neighboring nonvegetated substrates. Two areas along western Galveston Island were replanted with Halodule wrightii in late April and early May of 1994. Monitoring of these plantings will continue through 1995.

The project was funded at $75,000 through EPA's Near Coastal Waters Program, with NMFS/NOAA serving as the federal lead and the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department serving as the state lead. Both lead agencies are responsible for advance planning and subsequent site monitoring, attracting volunteers, arranging travel, and providing manpower, supplies and equipment (a combined $25,000 in-kind match). A variety of federal and non-federal partners have contributed to this activity: the COE provided permitting histories for coastal development and restoration site selection; the FWS and EPA assisted in site selection and work plan development; and the Texas General Land Office facilitated the permitting process. These agencies plus Texas A&M University, Dillard University and the Galveston Bay Foundation provided volunteer manpower to set up, conduct the transplanting and monitor the results.

Technical Lessons Learned:

1. Archeological coral is a suitable, albeit expensive, alternative substrate for oyster shell as was demonstrated in the Mobile Bay/Delta Wetlands Restoration, Alabama, project.
2. Seagrass restoration does not involve a "plant 'em and leave 'em" mind-set typical of other types of habitat restoration. There is a significant need to follow and protect seagrass restoration over a several year period to ensure that these fragile seagrasses take hold, begin to expand, and function as natural beds. Thus, a carefully developed monitoring plan should be produced and followed.
3. Adequate protection must be provided for seagrass beds, e.g., fences with reflectors and signs with information and telephone numbers, and they must be appropriately placed to minimize disturbances. In the case of the John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, Florida, although buoys were initially selected because of their lower costs, subsequent maintenance proved to be greatly underestimated and it was determined that fixed poles with day boards would be a better approach to warning boaters of these sensitive habitats.
4. Preliminary monitoring results indicate that seagrass transplants appear to do well the first year, spreading and attracting high densities of small fish, shrimp, and crabs relative to adjacent non-vegetated areas.
5. The addition of time release fertilizer to each transplant unit increases survival and speeds subsequent growth; however, the types and composition of available fertilizers needs to be further examined.

Procedural Lessons Learned:

1. Educational measures, included as part of a restoration project, need to be implemented over the long term due to the transient nature of coastal visitors. the value of informing the general public of the importance of certain natural resources can generate large benefits. First, by not damaging the resource, costly restoration efforts are eliminated and second, these lessons are often transferred to other parts of the country by tourists who become aware of the importance of various natural resources.
2. There are potentially a large number of "alternative" materials from which to construct reefs; however, as these materials are tested and utilized, it should be determined by the participating natural resource agencies that the reef material is inert and functions in a biologically effective manner, i.e., the material provides life requisites for species of interest and does not simply concentrate desirable species.
3. Should the type of restoration conducted at West Galveston Bay Seagrass Restoration, Texas, project prove to be viable, this method of physically transplanting seagrasses to new sites, rather than allowing natural colonization to occur, could prove helpful in mitigating submerged habitat damages via the regulatory systems of the state and federal governments.
4. The combined efforts of so many agency personnel involved in a typical Coastal America project exposes all participants to the functions of each agency, the ideas and the ideals of the people involved, while simultaneously instilling a sense of ownership in the restoration efforts being undertaken. This knowledge creates a better working environment and greater public endorsement for these activities.
5. Preventing boater damage to sensitive seagrass beds in the John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, Florida, depended upon strong local public support and compliance, active law enforcement, and visually effective signage. These efforts are helped by educating the local residents, thus encouraging compliance.

Marine Resources Preserve Designation, GU

This estimated $84,000 project involves developing a Marine Resources Preserve (MRP) adjacent to the coastline of Anderson Air Force Base, located on the northern end of the island of Guam. The Preserve is to be established for the protection and enhancement of critical, island marine resources and to develop and implement a plan for its management. Studies and successful sanctuary development elsewhere in the Pacific Basin, e.g., Hawaii, have demonstrated the effectiveness of marine preserves in managing multi-species tropical fisheries and their habitats.

Ocean currents in the proposed preserve area have been documented to disperse the larvae of mollusks, fishes, and corals to seed Guam's central and southern reefs. Additionally, ocean fishing in the proposed preserve area, in particular, spear fishing for adults and the indiscriminant use of nets threatens the survival of this island's southern reef ecosystem by jeopardizing the continued recruitment of juveniles from these northern reefs, and would be stopped under this proposal. A two year baseline data survey of marine resources in the preserve has been conducted to provide a basis for monitoring changes in marine organism populations and to better understand the ecology of tropical reef organisms. The survey results are now being used to develop a marine resources management plan for the preserve, including recommended measures to protect and enhance the ecosystem. Under the current proposal, shoreline hook and line fishing, trolling, and/or bottom fishing with hook and line from boats will only be permitted.

Andersen AFB's Environmental Management Office is the federal lead on the project and is providing funding under the DOD Legacy Program. The Air Force has been working closely with the University of Guam, Marine Laboratory; the University of Georgia's Institute of Ecology for endangered sea turtles specialists; the Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources; the FWS; and the NMFS in the development of the proposal and its subsequent implementation.

Technical Lessons Learned:

1. There were no technical lessons identified in this project category.

Procedural Lessons Learned:

1. When protecting a large aquatic area with the designation of a marine preserve, it is important to recognize that the plan be a working document that seeks to provide a framework for multiple uses and provides the flexibility for the application of new technologies and techniques in the management of the preserve.
2. The partnership developed for this project provided the necessary funding to conduct the necessary studies that will enable the management plan to be developed and implemented.

Clark Island Preserve, ME

The Navy is proposing to establish Clark Island as an ecological preserve. It anticipates establishing this preserve by the authority and funding from the Legacy Program. This program was created by the 1991 Department of Defense (DOD) Appropriations Act, which allows all DOD agencies to "establish programs for the restoration and rehabilitation of altered or degraded habitats." In an effort to aid the Navy in its initial planning efforts, the Coastal America Partners, including the COE, EPA, FWS, and NMFS have all been providing technical assistance and consultative services as needed. Additionally, the Maine Department of Environmental Protection and the University of New Hampshire have participated in a facilitated workshop involving the Coastal America Partners to address technical details of the restoration planning.

Pensaukee Harbor, WI

Pensaukee Harbor, Wisconsin, is located in Oconto County on the western shore of Green Bay, about 20 miles north of the Port of Green Bay. It is a small harbor supporting a fleet of commercial fishing vessels. Shoaling at the mouth of the harbor is quite extensive because of littoral drift and requires periodic dredging to maintain the authorized project depth.

In 1993, the COE dredged approximately 55,000 cubic yards of uncontaminated sediment consisting of fine to medium sands from the harbor and entrance channel. The dredged sediments were placed south, down drift of the harbor creating a 4.6 acre rectangular shaped island. Subsequent wave action has altered the original configuration into a fish hook shaped island which now provides habitat for wildlife resources that include colonial nesting birds and state listed endangered species, including the Foster's and common terns. Migrating waterfowl, especially tundra swans, make extensive use of the sheltered areas on the leeward side of the island. The island also provides erosion protection by shielding an extensive wetland located in the Pensaukee State Wildlife Area located in the lee of the island.

The COE utilized its general navigation authority to maintain the Pensaukee Harbor as the vehicle to create the proposed island. The City of Pensaukee was the non-federal sponsor and provided the necessary funding and assurances. Oconto County, Wisconsin, through the University of Wisconsin Extension, helped the local government plan the project and assisted in the regulatory process. Finally, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources issued the state water quality certification and other required permits, and aided in the preparation of the environmental assessment.

Technical Lessons Learned:

1. The beneficial use of dredged sediments is a proven technology that has been successfully used to restore wetlands, create islands, and other aquatic habitats. However, it is important to also recognize its potential use as an operative technique for helping to define sustainable development. By utilizing dredged sediments beneficially, it is possible to restore damaged ecosystems and provide for a stronger economy by sustaining navigation infrastructure.

Procedural Lessons Learned:

1. Often the open water disposal of dredged sediments is prohibited because of concerns over the presence of contaminants and their potential to enter the aquatic food chain. Close coordination and sharing of sediment data and biological testing results among permitting agencies can aid in ensuring that poor communication or data gaps do not impede the maintenance of harbors or navigation channels beyond a reasonable review.
2. An often overlooked task involved with the Coastal America process is the ability to provide planning and technical assistance to one or several partners, utilizing the combined expertise of the others, as was done for the Navy on Clark Island.

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